Constitutional Law Reference
All 27 Constitutional Amendments
A comprehensive study guide to every amendment to the United States Constitution. Each page includes the original text, a plain-English explanation, key doctrines, landmark Supreme Court cases, exam relevance, and modern applications — everything you need to master constitutional law.
Bill of Rights
The first ten amendments, ratified in 1791, guaranteeing fundamental individual rights and limiting federal power.
Freedom of Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly, and Petition
Strict Scrutiny for Content-Based Speech Restrictions · Lemon Test / Endorsement Test (Establishment Clause) · Free Exercise and Compelling Interest (Sherbert Test)
Right to Keep and Bear Arms
Individual Right to Bear Arms (Heller) · Incorporation Against States (McDonald) · Text, History, and Tradition Test (Bruen)
Quartering of Soldiers
Privacy Penumbra (Griswold) · Government Non-Intrusion into the Home
Search and Seizure
Reasonable Expectation of Privacy (Katz Test) · Exclusionary Rule (Mapp v. Ohio) · Warrant Requirement and Its Exceptions
Grand Jury, Double Jeopardy, Self-Incrimination, Due Process, and Takings
Miranda Rights and Custodial Interrogation · Double Jeopardy (Same Sovereign, Same Offense) · Substantive Due Process
Right to Speedy Trial, Confrontation, and Counsel
Right to Counsel (Gideon) · Effective Assistance of Counsel (Strickland Test) · Confrontation Clause (Crawford Testimonial Hearsay)
Right to Jury Trial in Civil Cases
Historical Test for Jury Trial Right · Re-examination Clause · Law vs. Equity Distinction
Cruel and Unusual Punishment, Excessive Bail and Fines
Evolving Standards of Decency · Proportionality in Sentencing · Categorical Bars on the Death Penalty
Unenumerated Rights
Unenumerated Rights and the Open-Ended Bill of Rights · Privacy Rights (Griswold Concurrence) · Retained Rights of the People
Powers Reserved to States and People
Anti-Commandeering Doctrine · Federalism and Reserved Powers · Limits on Federal Commerce Power
Early Republic & Civil War Era
Amendments addressing sovereign immunity, electoral procedures, and the transformative Reconstruction Amendments abolishing slavery and establishing equal citizenship.
Sovereign Immunity of States
State Sovereign Immunity · Congressional Abrogation Under Section 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment · Ex parte Young Exception (Injunctive Relief Against State Officials)
Electoral College Procedure
Separate Ballots for President and Vice President · Contingent Election Procedure
Abolition of Slavery
Badges and Incidents of Slavery · Congressional Enforcement Power (Section 2) · Application to Private Conduct
Citizenship, Due Process, and Equal Protection
Incorporation Doctrine (Applying Bill of Rights to States) · Substantive Due Process and Fundamental Rights · Procedural Due Process
Right to Vote Regardless of Race
Prohibition of Racial Discrimination in Voting · Congressional Enforcement Power (Section 2) · Preclearance and the Voting Rights Act
Progressive Era & Early 20th Century
Reforms enabling the income tax, direct election of senators, Prohibition, and women's suffrage.
Federal Income Tax
Congressional Taxing Power Without Apportionment · Direct Tax Doctrine
Direct Election of Senators
Direct Popular Election of Senators · Gubernatorial Appointment Power for Vacancies
Prohibition of Alcohol
National Prohibition and Federal Enforcement · Constitutional Amendment as Policy Tool
Women's Right to Vote
Prohibition of Sex-Based Voting Restrictions · Congressional Enforcement Power
Modern Amendments
Addressing presidential succession, term limits, voting rights, and congressional compensation.
Presidential and Congressional Terms
Lame Duck Period Reduction · Presidential Succession Before Inauguration
Repeal of Prohibition
State Authority Over Alcohol Regulation · Limits of Section 2 (Dormant Commerce Clause) · Amendment Repeal Process
Presidential Term Limits
Presidential Term Limits · Two-Term Tradition Codified
District of Columbia Electoral Votes
D.C. Electoral Representation · Electoral Vote Allocation
Abolition of Poll Tax in Federal Elections
Prohibition of Poll Taxes in Federal Elections · Wealth-Based Voting Restrictions
Presidential Succession and Disability
Vice Presidential Succession · Vice Presidential Vacancy Procedure · Voluntary Transfer of Power (Section 3)
Voting Age Set to 18
Minimum Voting Age · Age-Based Voting Protections
Congressional Compensation
Delayed Congressional Pay Raises · No Time Limit on Ratification
Constitutional Amendments at a Glance
27
Total Amendments
1791
Bill of Rights Ratified
1992
Most Recent Amendment
1
Amendment Repealed (18th)
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